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Collins: Contemporary Security Studies

Chapter 16

Instructions

Choose your answers from a-d by clicking the radio button next to each choice and then press 'Submit' to get your score.

Question 1

What frameworks of analysis has terrorism been considered within?

a) Competition between larger nations has resulted in some countries actively supporting terrorist groups to undermine the strength of rival states. Terrorist networks are extended patronage clubs maintained and paid for by their donor states which during the Cold War were put in place to undermine the Soviet Union but have since been engendered to undermine illiberal governments.

b) Globalization has enabled the internationalization of terrorist activities by opening up their operational space, although coordination is still managed from a geographical base. This suggests that terrorist groups are nationally structured which means that terrorism cannot be considered in terms of a war to be defeated militarily without having serious implications on the indigenous population.

c) The interrelation of interim and longer-standing strategies does not necessarily result in the exclusivity of the approach to the exclusion of other perspectives, the reactionary mechanisms dependent on the way in which terrorist activities are seen.

d) The criminalization of terrorism has two important implications. Firstly, it suggests that terrorism can be eradicated - terrorists can be caught and brought to trial by normal judicial proceedings thereby removing the threat from society- and secondly, it suggest that preventative crime techniques are applicable to prevent its development - this may include deterrence tactics such as higher police presence and harsher sentencing, the development of informer networks and infiltration of agents, and also strengthening law enforcement structures and operational powers through domestic legislation.

Question 2

In what ways is it possible to gain a definition of terrorism?

a) A definition of terrorism is that which uses the threat or use of organized violence to achieve political objectives which may include kidnappings and organized violence for financial gain which may be undertaken by groups or individuals

b) Organization of a terror campaign is understood to correspond to a minimum degree of cohesion necessary for the success of the perpetrating the campaign although individuals may operate in loose affiliation with a distanced leadership under orders by expansive suggestion.

c) Terrorist violence is a form of psychological warfare that generates fear in a target audience by attacking members of that group. Selected targets are chosen at random from a cross-section of groups within the state ranging from political representatives, security forces, civilians or law enforcement. Random acts of violence contribute to the sense of insecurity and societal instability.

d) Terrorism is a broad concept that is understood to denote the threat or use of organized violence for the attainment of political objectives. The definition may therefore be inclusive of governments as targets or perpetrators and cases of war (hot and cold) where terror and counter-terror measures are tactics of either side.

Question 3

What techniques and targets belong to a workable definition of terrorism and terrorist concerns?

a) Suicide attacks have been employed by terrorists having the advantage of enabling detonation at the last minute or when casualties will be maximized. A potential future danger is that a suicide attack could be combined with the use of chemical, biological or radiological weapons.

b) The ability to find vulnerable targets may be greater in democratic states since there are limitations on how much a government can monitor its citizen and will, in the event of an attack, generate more publicity. However, security forces in weak non-democratic countries also provide conditions conducive to terrorist activity, enabling relative freedom of operation and movement.

c) WMD have not been used very often, requiring high levels of resources and trained personnel for use. Furthermore, most terrorist groups still prefer to use more predictable methods for inflicting maximum casualties on the target. Yet to some extent, terrorist groups have gained a psychological edge because of the fear of use of WMD.

d) All of the above.

Question 4

How prevalent is terrorist activity?

a) The distinction between domestic and international attacks has become increasingly widened, particularly the difference between domestic orientated terrorism - such as the removal of a government figure - and externally directed activities whose objectives may be defined as ideologically or systemically. Citizens involved in international attacks on these criteria are symptomatic of an internal disaffection with the nation's ideas, policies, or social system.

b) Statistics show that instances of domestic terrorism are decreasingly prevalent comparative to international incidences. International occurrences can be ten times higher in the figures of injuries and deaths, which may be attributable to the larger scale of force employed in terrorist operations. Successive numbers of internationally directed incidents of terrorism in 2002, 2003, and 2004, were higher than those in 2001.

c) International terrorist incidents are distinguished from domestic terrorism, by those attacks which are launched against a target of another country or where a foreign target is attacked. Attacks aginst the leader or target of a domestic political actor does not qualify as an act of international terrorism having been generated by internal political objectives.

d) The extensity and effect of international terrorism is contentious. Domestic acts of violence continue to be the most prevalent from of terrorism, the predominant difference being that international terrorist acts generate greater media attention.

Question 5

What are the types of terrorism? Are all groups the same?

a) Religious terrorism seems to be one of the hallmarks of the post-Cold War age. Religious terrorism is understood to denote the extremist activities of Islamic fundamentalism. Al-Qaeda is the most prominent example of religious terrorist groups and is described as globally operational, although religious terrorism is not limited to the al-Qaeda network. There are other Islamic groups (some of whom may indeed have loose affiliations with al-Qaeda factions), that have been predominantly active in the middle East and North Africa

b) Terrorist groups have drawn their ideas from ideologies. Clashes against communist groups were encouraged by western governments. However by the 1990s right wing reactionaries began to wane. Leftist Marxist groups emerged in the 1990s against globalized capitalist hegemony, distinguishable from religious activists.

c) Groups defined by their ethnic or linguistic identifications are a broad category for the organization of terrorist groups. In some countries a large number of anti-colonial groups were ethnically based and used terrorist tactics in the wars of liberation. Such loyalties and tactics have in some cases proved immutable post-independence. Ethnic and linguistic affiliation has proved a powerful motivation for terrorist actions when combined with territory, and ethnic independence from another ethnic group.

d) All of the above.

Question 6

What are the causes of terrorism?

a) Democratization and nationalism inhibits the opportunity for terrorism: nationalism provides the ideological dynamic to unify ethnic differences, and democracy allows for the articulation of grievances in a constructive manner. Within this analysis states with weak democratic and nationalist credentials may provide the conditions that contribute to the development of terrorism.

b) Terrorism amongst Islamic groups is developed on ethnocentric lines opposed to the secularism that accompanies modernity. It is perhaps ironic that whilst terrorism was organized around the threat to Islamic society in the Middle East, the response to threat has resulted in groups in Europe feeling threatened by Muslim intrusion on western values.

c) Non-democratic state structures characterized by a strong centralized system and repressive methods open a space for popular discontent to transform into operational terrorist activities with the intent of ending the political system. Whilst the opportunities for popular participation in liberal democracies prevents popular discontent from being articulated in a negative form.

d) Capitalist market activities and technological and communication revolutions have increasingly intruded on traditional cultures and societies. Development inequalities and increasing marginalization of some ethnic or economic groups in the populations, alongside an increasing awareness of their dispossession provides grounds for breeding terrorism.

Question 7

What preventative security measures might a government take in defense of a potential future terrorist attack?

a) Prevention is normally associated with the concept of terrorism as war or crime. All governments will practice prevention (seen as repression from the terrorist perspective) by seeking to arrest or eliminate those actively involved in the violence. Security forces attack the terrorists before they strike (war) or they are arrested after the attack (crime) b. Large terrorist organizations are hard to penetrate being highly cohesive and centralized in structure for effective infiltration by government agents. In both the warfare and criminal model intelligence is obtained by two methods, firstly to elicit information from captured terrorists or secondly from an informer within the group. An intelligence coup greatly enhances the prospect of stopping terrorist operations once the larger group has been compromised.

b) Prevention of terrorism is a highly controversial policy designed to reduce the appeal of terrorism within the population through reform packages. The method is characterized by diplomatic exchanges. However, as a preventative method it has been questioned and it is argued to resemble concessionary politics.

c) Prevention is conceived as securing the physical integrity of targets and key political installations, particularly weapons installations, national buildings, national or cultural symbols, or defense deployments. Protecting possible targets of the state enhances the wellbeing of more vulnerable targets. Terrorists may move to more convenient territory to target their objectives which make it more difficult to control.

d) null

Question 8

In what ways does the perspective on terrorism influence the response a government will take?

a) Within the disease prescription reform packages become part of the government response to reduce the appeal of the terrorist group within the population. However, reforms may encourage terrorists to continue their violent activities because they are being rewarded. Under these conditions reforms may become concessions that fuel the violence rather than a mechanism for ending it. It is also clear that reforms may not eliminate the presence of terrorism.

b) Contemporary responses to terrorism have been taken within the context of the war on terror analogy, in which the norms of retaliation and punishment prevail. Implicit within this view is the justification for pre-emptive action taken against training facilities, headquarters, sources of funding, and even the assassination of key individuals in response.

c) While the warfare analogy also presumes deterrence at times, deterrence is more central to a justice system. The extent of preemption available in a normal criminal context is the detention of suspects or judicial harassment.

d) All of the above. Responses to terrorist attacks vary, either explicitly or implicitly, if warfare is seen as warfare, crime, or disease.

Question 9

In what ways might international measures be employed? Are they a help or a hindrance?

a) Diplomacy cannot achieve agreements among small groups of nations where global agreements have failed. Global endorsement is required to legitimize the process, providing greater cooperation, agreements and great power backing. Failure to attain global consensus on what terrorism is will result in disparities between states' counterterrorism methods which will severely reduce the scope of employing multi-level measures in a consistent and cohesive fashion, and may afford some terrorist groups the opportunity to seek refuge in states whose domestic laws are weaker.

b) A great deal of international diplomacy has involved attempts to define terrorism so that all countries could take steps to eradicate it. However, these efforts have largely faltered: countries often support or sympathize with dissidents who use violence against repressive governments; governments in developing countries have wanted to avoid anti-colonial struggles being labeled as terrorism; and countries want to retain a degree of flexibility regarding extradition and punishment of political dissidents.

c) Intelligence agencies are highly centralized organized structures that operate at a maximum functional level within their domestic context. There is no reason to presume that collaboration would enhance their ability to contribute to the prevention of terrorism. The multi-agency approach would also broaden the scope for potential errors, miscommunication, and intelligence failures. There is also some reason to suggest that multilateralism will be ineffective without the creation of a legitimate supra-national body to coordinate preventative operations and intelligence gathering

d) Multi-partner initiatives to support the reforms necessary for the prevention of terrorism have proved ineffective. Sanctions against countries which provide a territorial base for terrorism may be misplaced, having negligible effects on the terrorist organizations themselves. Large and loose terrorist organizations are hard to target by economic or military means. Indeed the cumulative effect of targeting the state above the group may conversely serve to weaken the state structures enhancing the ability of terrorist organizations to organize more freely.

Question 10

Is the provision of security policy against terrorism a problematic pursuit?

a) Although trends suggest that terrorism shows little sign of abating there is some positive indication that international cooperation between countries will play an increasingly important role in collaboration with indigenous intelligence agencies. A meaningful international definition of terrorism would provide an unlimited framework for responding to the specter of terrorism.

b) Responding to terrorism in its manifest form (the war on terror and crime approaches) holds little potential for eradicating terrorism in the long-term. It is clear that terrorism will remain a security threat for years to come unless the root causes are addressed: inadequate access to electoral process; the disruption of economic, political, social and religious and cultural systems as a result of globalization; weak state infrastructures and rule of law. Countermeasures will prove fruitless (or a perpetual fight) unless nascent discontent is addressed before it is radicalized.

c) A concern with counter-terrorism efforts is the potential consequences on civil liberties. The greatest danger comes when governments regard the battle against terrorism as warfare because most democratic countries permit greater restrictions on the rights of individuals during wartime. As a consequence, viewing the struggle as war tends to have connotations with the idea that temporary personal curtailment may be a necessity for long-term victory.

d) Providing security against terrorism will be a problematic and protracted pursuit, counterterrorist successes against one group may not prove successful elsewhere. However, looking at the problems from the perspectives of either war, crime, or disease holds the possibility of adapting the right response for the right situation, for example treating terrorism as crime will be the most appropriate if the organization has links with drug cartels.

Oxford University Press, Online Resource Centre, Chapter 16.