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Accession criteria (Copenhagen criteria)
Set in June 1993 by EU leaders at the meeting in Copenhagen to define whether any candidate country is eligible to join the EU. The criteria require that a state guarantee democracy and human rights, a functioning market economy and accept all the acquis.Accountability
The requirement for representatives to answer to the represented on how they have performed their duties and powers, and for them to act upon criticisms made of them and accept responsibility for failure, incompetence or deceit.Acquis communautaire
The acquis is the Community patrimony, the body of common rights and obligations which bind the member states together. It includes the content of the Treaties, legislation, international agreements and other measures.Action for annulment
A court case which, if won, would lead to the rejection of a law.Adenauer, Konrad
(b. 1876, d. 1967). First Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany after the end of the Second World War. He held office for 14 years, and was responsible for overseeing the reconstruction of Germany in the 1950s, particularly in the context of European integration of which he was a key supporter.Agenda 2000
An influential action programme adopted by the Commission on 15 July 1987, which set out the reforms needed for the EU to enlarge.Agenda-setting
The process by which an issue or problem emerges onto the political scene and is framed for subsequent debate.A la carte
A non-uniform method of integration which would allow member states to select policies as if from a menu.Amsterdam (Treaty of)
Signed in October 1997, and in force from 1 May 1999, the Treaty amended certain provisions of the Treaty on European Union and the European Community Treaties.Assent
A legislative procedure in which the Council must first obtain the European Parliament's assent before certain important decisions can be taken. It applies to the accession of new members to the European Union.Authority
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The right or capacity (or both) to have proposals, prescriptions or instructions accepted without recourse to persuasion, bargaining or force; more simply, the power or right to control, judge or prohibit the actions of others.
Barriers to trade
Protectionist technical and fiscal rules, and more physical constraints that carve up or prevent the creation of the internal market.Benelux
Short for 'Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg'. The term originally related to the 1944 Customs Union between these three countries, and is said to have been coined by the Brussels correspondent of The Economist in 1947.Bi-cameral
Involving two chambers. Usually refers to parliaments divided into an upper and lower house.Bilateral Intergovernmental Conference (EU-Applicant countries)
Negotiations on the accession of new Member States to the European Union take the form of bilateral intergovernmental conferences between the European Union and each of the applicant countries. Since the accession of the ten new Member States on 1 May 2004, only the EU-Romania and EU-Bulgaria bilateral intergovernmental conferences are still under way, with the targeted accession date being 1 January 2007. On 3 October 2005, the EU agreed to open membership talks with Croatia, and also agreed to open accession negotiations with Turkey.Bretton Woods
Agreement signed by 44 countries in July 1944 to support an international monetary system of stable exchange rates. The aim of the Agreement was to make national currencies convertible on current account, to encourage multi-lateral world trade, and to avoid disruptive devaluations and financial crashes.Budgetary Deficits
Governmental shortfalls of current revenue over current expenditure.
Central Banks
Bankers to the government and to commercial banks. They manage public debt, control the money supply, and regulate the monetary and credit system.Change Mechanisms
Processes through which change takes place. Examples include 'rule-following', 'learning' and 'argument and persuasion'.Charter of Fundamental Rights
Signed at the Nice European Council meeting in December 2000, the Charter of Fundamental Rights sets out fundamental rights associated with EU membership. It is not a legally binding document, but is expected to be incorporated in the Treaties at some point in the future.Citizenship
The condition or status of a citizen, as a member of a community which is usually determined by law. It entails certain rights and obligations.Citizenship ideal
The meaning endowed in a particular concept of citizenship.Citizenship Practice
The politics and policy that contributes to a particular meaning of citizenship; how citizenship as a concept is operationalized in the political sphere.Civil Society
An intermediate realm between the state and the individual or family; or a particular type of political society rooted in principles of citizenship.Closer Co-operation
Established by the Amsterdam Treaty, it introduces instruments which allow groups of states that wish to integrate further than provided for in the Treaties to do so. It was renamed 'enhanced co-operation' at Nice.Co-decision Procedure
A complicated three stage decision making procedure that involves both the EU Council and the European Parliament in making European legislation, thereby enhancing the role of the Parliament in the legislative process. It was introduced in the Treaty on European Union at Maastricht (article 251, ex. 189b) and simplified in the subsequent Amsterdam Treaty.Co-determination
Employee participation in firm decision making, through, for example, Works Councils.Cohesion
Regional economic and social policy; a principle which favours the reduction of regional and social disparities across the European Union.Collective Bargain
An agreement negotiated by trade unions and employers or their associations on incomes or on the working conditions of employees.Collective Goods
Those who do not pay for a collective good cannot be excluded from sharing or using it (such as 'clean air').Collegiality
A principle which implies that decisions taken by one are the collective responsibility of all.Comitology
Refers to the network or procedures of committees designed to oversee the agreement of implementing measures taken by the EU's executive bodies.Common external tariff
A central element of any customs union. A set of common tariffs, agreed by all members, imposed on goods coming into the Union from the outside its borders.Common market
An economic agreement that extends co-operation beyond a customs union, to provide for the free movement of goods, services, capital and labour.Communitarized
Communitarization is the process by which responsibility for a policy is moved from pillars 2 or 3 to pillar 1, the EC pillar. It implies the increased involvement of the supranational European institutions in European decision making.Community method
The use of the 'established' process of EC decision making, which involves a Commission legislative initiative being agreed by the Council, and now usually the European Parliament. It also implies that the Court of Justice will have jurisdiction over any decision taken.Competencies
Is often used in political discussions about what powers and responsibilities should be given to EU institutions and what should be left to national, regional and local authorities.Compliance
The act of complying or acquiescing to the law.Concentric Circles
A concept which envisages a Europe structured out of subsets of states which have achieved different levels of integration.Conciliation Process
The third stage of the co-decision procedure, at which point, an equal number of representatives of the Parliament and Council get together to try to work out an agreement acceptable to all.Conditionality
The principle that applicant states must meet certain conditions before they can become members of the European Union.Confederal
See confederationConfederation
A political model which involves a loose grouping of states, characterized by the fact that the centre has fewer powers than the states or regions.Consensual
Type of decision making which involves the agreement of all, even where this is not formally a requirement.Consociational(ism)
A political model which brings together distinct communities in shared decision making, whilst protecting the interests of the minority.Constitution of the EU
This document (technically known as the 'constitutional Treaty') is supposed to simplify the existing Treaty of the European Union. It was agreed in June 2004 and signed by all the member state governments in October 2004. The ratification process came to halt as the French and Dutch referendums rejected the Constitution in May and June 2005.Constitutionalization
The formalization of the rules of the game, which in an EU context might involve a process whereby the Treaties become over time - dejure or just de facto - a Constitution.'Constitutive' tradition
An understanding of the world which problematizes the relationship between theory and reality, which are deemed to be tied closely one to the other.Constructive Abstention
Allows member states to abstain in the Council on Common Foreign and Security Policy decision, without blocking a unanimous agreement.Constructivism
Or 'social constructivism'. A theoretical approach which claims that politics is affected as much by ideas as by power. It argues that the fundamental structures of political life are social rather than material.Consultation
The original EC decision making procedure, which gave the Commission the exclusive right of initiative, the Council the ability to take the decision, but which only allowed the Parliament a consultative role in the legislative process.Convention (on the Future of Europe)
A body set up in 2002 to debate alternative models and visions of the European Union, and to prepare a draft Constitution which could be used as the basis of discussion in the intergovernmental conference of 2004.Convergence criteria
The rules that member states had to meet before they could join Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.Convertibility
Where one currency is freely exchangeable into other currencies.Co-operation
Usually implies government-to-government relations (with little supranational involvement).Co-operation procedure
A legislative procedure introduced in the Single European Act (article 252 ex 198c), which allows the European Parliament a second reading of draft legislation. Since Amsterdam, it is now very little used, as most policies originally falling under co-operation now come under the co-decision procedure.Core Europe
Or 'hard core': the idea that a small group of countries able and willing to enter into closer co-operation within one another might 'leave behind' the less enthusiastically integrationist members of the Union.Corporatist
Corporatism is a model of policy making which links producer interests to the state, and where interest organizations are incorporated into the system. Corporatism (as opposed to neo-corporatism) is often associated with (Italian) fascism.Customs union
An economic association of states based on an agreement to eliminate tariffs and other obstacles to trade, and which also includes a common trade policy vis-à-vis third countries, usually by establishing a common external tariff on goods imported into the union.
Davignon Report
A document issued by EC foreign ministers in 1970, outlining how the Community might develop its own foreign policy, and setting out some initial steps to that end.Decision
A legislative act, directed at one particular actor or group of actors, rather than being generally applicable.Deepening
The integration dynamic; a term usually describing an intensification of integration processes and structures.de Gaulle, Charles
President of France from 1959-69. Responsible for keeping the UK out of the EC in the 1960s, and for the 'empty chair policy' which is said to have slowed down the European integration process after 1966.Delegated legislation
Legislation usually made by executive bodies on behalf of legislatures. It often involves the making of administrative rules, and the filling in of gaps in existing legislation.Delegation
An act which allows a legitimate political institution to hand powers over to a body which then acts on its behalf.Democratic deficit
The loss of democracy caused by the transfer of powers to the European institutions and to member state executives arising out of European integration. It implies that representative institutions (parliaments) lose out in this process.Demos
The people of a nation as a political unit; a politically defined public community.Dependent variable
The object of study; the phenomenon one is trying to explain.Derogations
Temporary exceptions to legislation.Differentiated integration
See differentiationDifferentiation
The idea that sub-sets of member states might engage in European integration projects that do not involve all existing members; contrasts with the notion of the EU as a uniform Community.Direct actions
Cases brought directly before the European Courts.Direct Implementation
The putting into effect of European legislation by the European institutions (rather than by national governments).Directives
Legislative instruments that specify the aims to be achieved, but which generally leave the question of how to achieve those ends up to national governments or their agents.Directly Effective
Having a quality which allows provisions of Community law to be enforced in national courts, and which impose obligations on those against whom they are enforced.Dirigiste
See interventionistDouble majority
The Treaty of Nice 2001, in the light of enlargement, redefines the qualified majority in terms of a double or even triple majority. Any decision taken under this scheme will require the support of at least 55% of the Council members who must also represent at least 65% of the EU's population.
Enforcement
The process of ensuring that (Community) rules are implemented. It may involves taking action in the European Courts.Enhanced Co-operation
See closer co-operationEnlargement
The expansion of the European Union to include new member states.Epistemology
Theory of knowledge, which accounts for the way in which knowledge about the world is acquired.Ethnos
A shared identity; an imaginary community or affiliation; somewhere between 'tribe' and 'nation'.Eurobarometer
Set up in 1973, which measures and analyses trends in public opinion in all the member states and in the candidate countries based on opinion polls and focus groups.Eurocorps
A multi-national military force of 50 000 set up in 1995 to promote co-operation across the EU's armed forces. Involves France, Germany, Spain, Belgium and Luxembourg.European Central Bank (ECB)
Established in Frankfurt in 1999, the ECB is responsible for the single monetary policy of the 'Euro-zone'.European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
Established by six states in April 1951 by the Treaty of Paris, the ECSC allowed for the pooling of authority over coal and steel industries. As it was based on a 50 year treaty, the ECSC ceased to exist on 23 July 2002.European Currency Unit (ECU)
The unit of account under the European Monetary System, composed of a 'basket of currencies'. Was replaced by the 'Euro'.European Monetary System (EMS)
A regulated exchange rate system established in the EC in 1979 after failures to set up an Economic and Monetary Union earlier in the decade. The EMS aimed to promote monetary co-operation and exchange rate stability.European Political Co-operation (EPC)
Foreign policy co-operation prior to Maastricht, set up after 1970 and formalized by the Single European Act.European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP)
Includes the framing of a common security and defence policy, which allows the Union to deal with humanitarian and rescue tasks, peacekeeping, peacemaking and crisis management, called the 'Petersberg tasks'.European System of Central Banks (ESCB)
The national central banks together with the European Central Bank.Europeanization
Defined in various ways (see chapter 22). For example, it may refer either to the process of European integration itself, or as a short-hand for the 'Europeanization of domestic institutions, politics and identities'.Eurosclerosis
A word used to characterize the period of EC history between 1966 and the early 1980s, when the process of integration appeared to have slowed down, and when the common market objective within the Treaty of Rome was not implemented.Eurozone
The economic area which covers the 12 countries that have so far joined the EU's single currency.Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM)
The main element of the European Monetary system – a mechanism which aimed to create a zone of monetary stability within Western Europe.Executive(s)
Branch of government, responsible for implementing laws taken by parliament; the administration.Executive Rule-Making
The making of administrative law, which usually involves decision taking by civil servants. In the EU, this will often mean regulation by the Commission (albeit overseen by committees of member state representatives).
Federal
See federalismFederalist
Promoting federal ideas or ideology.Federalism
An ideological position which suggests that everyone can be satisfied by combining national and regional/territorial interests in a complex web of checks and balances between a central government and a multiplicity of regional governments. In an EU context it tends to imply an ideological approach which advocates the creation of a federal state in Europe.Federation
A way of organizing a political system which involves the constitutionally-defined sharing of functions between a federal centre and the states. A federation will usually have a bicameral parliament, a constitutional court and a Constitution.First Pillar
The European Union is divided into three pillars. The first pillar is the European Community pillar. Most European policies fall under this part of the Union.Fixed Exchange Rates
Exchange rates tied together (with no fluctuations possible) having the same effect as a single currency, but which allows states to keep their own currencies.Flexibility
See differentiationFortress Europe
The image of a European single market, liberalized internally, but protectionist vis-à-vis the outside world.Fouchet Plan
A plan proposed in 1961 and pushed by the French government, which would have led to the creation of a European intergovernmental defence organization, but which was rejected by the EC's member states.Four Freedoms
A central pillar of the single market programme of 1985 was the promotion of the free movement of goods, services, labour and capital, the 'four freedoms'.Framework Decisions
Decisions that sketch the broad outline of a policy, and which usually rely on further legislation before implementation is possible.Franco-German Axis
See Paris-Bonn axis.Free Ride
To free ride is to reap the benefits of a collective agreement without having participated in efforts to forge the agreement or to implement it. See also 'collective goods'; a free rider is someone who benefits from collective activity without participating in it.Functional 'Spillover'
The knock-on effect of integration in one sector, which is said by neo-functionalists to provoke integration in neighbouring sectors.
Genetically modified organisms (GMO)
Are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by the introduction of a modified gene or a gene from another variety or species. There has been Community legislation on GMOs since 1998 in order to protect human health and the environment under the rules of the single market.Globalization
A contested concept, which usually refers to the growing economic independence of states and non-state actors worldwide. Often associated with increased capital mobility, and the spread of neo-liberal ideas, for example. Implies that market authority is enhanced at the cost of formal political authority.Grand theory
A theory which tries to explain the entirety of a political process, such as European integration.
Hard core
This refers to a small group of countries able and willing to enter into closer cooperation with one another. This concept has to be seen in the wider context of flexibility, which should see differentiated integration enshrined in the institutional framework of the Union to prevent hard cores from forming outside this framework (as was the case with the Schengen area).Harmonization
The act of setting common European standards from which states are unable to deviate (either upwards or downwards).Hegemony
Power, control or influence exercised by a leading state over other states.
Implementation
Carrying out or putting into effect adopted policies, whether legally or practically.Incorporation
See transpositionIndependent variable
A factor contributing to an explanation of some phenomenon (to a dependent variable).Indirect Implementation
The putting into effect of European legislation, which involves action by national governments or their agents.Inflation
A progressive increase in the general level of prices brought about by expansion in demand of the money supply.Infringement proceedings
The act of initiating a procedure for breach of European law which may result in a court case.Institution
An institution is a network of principles, rules, norms and procedures. It is sometimes more narrowly used in a European Union context as a synonym for 'organization', as when one talks of the 'European institutions'.Institutional balance
Derived from a judgement by the European Court of Justice, the principle means that each institution has to act in accordance with the powers conferred on it by the Treaties.Institutional theory
Theory that sees an important role for structures (such as rules and norms) in political life, rather than simply focusing on the interactions of individuals and groups.Integration
A general concept, which implies the act of combining parts to make a unified whole – a dynamic process of change. European integration is usually associated with the intensely institutionalized form of co-operation found in Western Europe after 1951.Intensification
A method of farming which aims to use land more and more efficiently by increasing productivity, but which may have negative long-term consequences for the environment.Interdependence
A condition in which the actions of one state impact upon others.Interest Intermediation
The process of translating interests into policy, through the medium of interest organizations.Interest Rate
The rate of return on savings, or the rate paid on borrowings.Intergovernmental (co-operation)
Co-operation that involves sovereign states, and which occurs on a government-to-government basis, rather than implying the extensive involvement of supranational actors.Intergovernmentalism
A theory of European integration which privileges the role of states.Intergovernmental Bargaining
The bargaining that takes place between governments, particularly in the EU Council or European Council; and which usually excludes supranational actors.Intergovernmental Conference (IGC)
Structured negotiations among the EU's member states, which usually leads to a treaty revision.Intervening variables
Factors that may influence a particular phenomenon, but which do so by filtering or altering the effects of 'independent variables'.Interventionist
Interventionism is where governments involve themselves in the regulation of markets, through government policy, rather than leaving markets to regulate themselves.
Joint-decision trap
The idea promoted by Fritz Scharpf in 1988 that while it might be increasingly difficult in future for further integration to take place, it will also be impossible for states to go back on agreements already made. As such states were 'trapped' within the European integration process.
Keynesian
A position held which supports J. M. Keynes' economic theory, and which has as its starting point the assumption that state finances should be used to counteract cyclical economic downturns. The argument implies that governments should focus on issues of employment and economic growth, rather on variables such as inflation.Kyoto Protocol
Adopted in December 1997, this Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change specified the reduction of the emissions of six greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride) to be undertaken by both developed and developing countries.
Laeken
European Council (summit) meeting which took place on 14-15 December 2001. At Laeken, governments decided to hold a Convention which would debate the Future of Europe.Laissez-faire
An economic position which argues that the state (governments) should play only a minimal regulatory role in economic affairs, with decisions left mainly to the market.League of Nations
An international organization set up in 1922 which had as its rationale the maintenance of peace in Europe.Legal basis
See Treaty baseLegitimacy
The idea that a regime's procedures for making and enforcing laws are acceptable to all its subjects; the right to rule.Level Playing-Field
An expression which implies that member states should be subject to the same rules, and should expect the same successes arising out of their participation in the European integration process.Liberal intergovernmentalism
Andrew Moravcsik's update on classical intergovernmentalism (see chapter 7).Liberalization of Capital Markets
The removal of exchange controls by states, allowing capital to flow freely across state borders.Lock-outs
A situation where employers lock employees out of their place of work as a consequence of a labour dispute.Logic of Appropriateness
Assumes that actors do not take decisions on the basis of rational choice, but are constrained by social and cultural 'scripts' which shape their conduct.Logic of Calculation
Assumes that actors are rational beings. See 'rationalist'.
Maastricht Treaty
See Treaty on European UnionMacro-economic policies
Economic policies which deal with aggregates such as national income and investment in the economy.Majoritarian
Application of majority rule. T he principle that the majority should be allowed to rule the minority.Market Citizenship
The concept introduced to the EC in the 1950s whereby citizens of member states became endowed with certain rights as workers within the European Community.Market integration
The breaking down of barriers to trade amongst the EU's member state, plus any regulation necessary to ensure the smooth running of the single market. It does not involve an explicitly political dimension.Middle-range theories
Theories that aim to explain only part of a political process and that do not have totalizing ambitions.Money Supply
The stock of liquid assets in an economy that can be freely exchanged for goods and services.Monnet, Jean
(b. 1888, d. 1979). One of the founders of the European integration project. The driving force behind the 1950 Schuman Plan which led to the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), Monnet became the first head of the ECSC's High Authority. He continued to play an active role in European integration throughout his life, though often behind the scenes.Monnet Method
See Community MethodMultifunctionality
The notion in agricultural policy that the policy can be used to serve a range of functions, including environmental protection and rural development.Multi-level governance
An approach to the study of EU politics which emphasizes the interaction of the many different actors who influence European policy outcomes.Multi-speed (Europe)
A method of differentiated integration whereby common objectives are pursued by a group of member states, able and willing to advance further that others in the integration process.Mutual recognition
The principle that an economic product sold in one member state should not be prohibited from sale anywhere in the EU. This was upheld in the famous 'Cassis de Dijon' case (1979) brought to the European Court of Justice. Exceptions can be made in cases of public health and safety however.
Negative integration
A form of European integration which involves the removal of barriers between the member states.Neo-corporatist
Neo-corporatism is a model of policy making which links producer interests to the state, and where interest organizations are incorporated into the system. The neo- prefix was added in the 1970s to distinguish this from corporatism in the past – particularly in the fascist era.Neo-functionalism
A theory of European integration which views integration as an incremental process, involving the spill over of integration in one sector to others, ultimately leading to some kind of political community.Neo-functionalist
See neo-functionalismNeo-liberalism
An economic school, which advocates the reduction of state influence in the market, the liberalization of the economy, the privatization of state-owned firms, tight control of money supply, and supports a general trend towards deregulation.Neo-realism
An International Relations theory, associated with the work of Kenneth Waltz, which claims that the international state system is anarchic, and as such that state uncertainty is a given. States will want to maintain their independence, and survival will be their primary objective, but they may all the same engage in European integration if this serves their ends.Net contributors
Those countries that get less out of the EC budget than they contribute.Net recipients
Those countries that get more out of the EC budget than they contribute.New institutionalism
A conceptual approach to the study of politics which restates the importance of institutional factors in political life. It takes a number of very different forms, from rational institutionalism and historical institutionalism to sociological institutionalism.Nice Treaty
Treaty revision agreed at Nice in December 2000, signed February 2001, and ratified in 2002. It introduced a number of institutional reforms which paved the way for the enlargement of the Union in 2004 and after.Non-tariff barriers
See barriers to trade.Non-state actors
Usually any actor that is not a national government. Often refers to transnational actors, such as interest groups (rather than to international organizations).
Ombudsman
An official who investigates citizens' complaints against the state or its servants.Ontology
Relates to the nature of being; an underlying conception of the world; that which is being pre-supposed by a theory.Open Method of Co-ordination
An approach to EU policy making which is an alternative to regulation and which involves more informal means of encouraging compliance that 'hard' legislation.Optimum currency area (OCA)
A theoretical notion which implies that monetary union will only work effectively when the states participating are economically very similar.Opting out
Opting out is an exemption granted to a country that does not wish to join the other Member States in a particular area of Community cooperation as a way of avoiding a general stalemate.
Package deals
Policy issues tied together into one package of legislation, so as to facilitate agreement. This has been a strategy used by the European Commission in the past.Parachutage
The act of appointing someone into a top job, usually from outside the organization.Paradigm
A model or pattern.Paris-Bonn axis
The relationship between France and Germany, which is often said to lie at the heart of the European integration process.Parsimony
A theory which is parsimonious is a theory which provides an extremely simplified depiction of reality.Path Dependence
The idea that decisions taken in the past limit the scope of decisions in the present (and future).Petersberg tasks
Originally they dealt with the military tasks that the Western European Union (WEU) may undertake: humanitarian and rescue tasks, peace-keep tasks and tasks of combat forces in crisis management. Today these tasks are expressly included in Article 17 of the Treaty on European Union and form an integral part of the European Security and Defence Policy (ESPD).Pillar
One of three parts of the European Union, which since its inception at Maastricht has been divided into pillar 1 (the EC pillar), pillar 2 (foreign and security policy) and pillar 3 (formerly justice and home affairs, now just police and judicial co-operation in criminal matters).Pluralist
Pluralism is a general approach which implies that organized groups play an important role in the political process.Policy entrepreneurs
Policy actors who are able to set or manipulate the political 'marketplace'.Polity
A politically organized society.Positive integration
A form of integration which involves the construction of policies and/or institutions.Positive-sum outcomes
Outcomes that constitute more than the sum of their parts. Often talked of in EU terms as an 'upgrading of the common interest'.Power
The ability to control outcomes. The capacity for A to force B to do something in A's interest.Preliminary rulings
Acts of the European Court, which arise as responses to questions of European law posed in domestic courts.Price support
The system of agricultural support which involves keeping food prices higher than the market price so as to give farmers a higher and more stable income.Proportionality
A principle which implies that the means should not exceed to the ends – applies to decision making/the legislative process.Public debts
The amount of money owed by the state.
Qualified majority voting (QMV)
System of voting in the EU Council, which attributes a number of votes to each member state (very roughly related to their size). A majority of these votes (currently 71%) is needed for legislation to be agreed in the Council, implying that some states will be outvoted, but will have to apply the legislation all the same.
Ratification
Formal approval. In the EU context, it implies approval of treaty revisions by national parliaments and sometimes also by popular referendum.Ratification Crisis (1992)
The crisis provoked by the Danish 'no vote' in their 1992 referendum on the Maastricht Treaty.Rational Choice
See rationalistRationalist
Theories that are rationalist assume that individuals (or states) are able to make rank orderings of their preferences and to choose the best available preference.Realism
A rationalist theory of International Relations.Realist
See RealismRecession
A temporary depression in economic activity or prosperity.Redistributive
Policy which transfers wealth from one group to another.Reference Value
A baseline. A measure from which an assessment of economic process can be made.Regime
Principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures around which actors' expectations occur. An international regime is usually considered to take the form of an international organization. It is a concept associated with neo-realism.Regulation
The act of making rules or legislation in order to provoke certain policy outcomes.Regulations
One of the legislative instruments used by the EU. Regulations are directly effective, spelling out not just the aims of legislation, but what must be done and how.Representation
The principle by which delegates are chosen to act for a particular constituency (group of electors).Right of association
The democratic right of people to form groups such as trades unions.
Schengen
An agreement to create a border-free European Community. It was originally outside the EC, but was incorporated into it at Amsterdam.Schuman Plan
Signed on 9 May 1950, it led to the setting up of the European Coal and Steel Community.Sectoral integration
A description of or strategy for integration which involves a incremental sector-by-sector approach. See also 'spillover'.Separation of powers
A condition of democratic political systems where the executive, legislature and judiciary are separate, and provide checks and balances which serve to prevent abuses of power.Single European Act (SEA)
The first of the large-scale Treaty revisions, signed in 1986. It came into force in 1987, and served as a 'vehicle' for the single market programme.Single market
The idea of having one unified internal EU market, free of (national) barriers to trade. While the idea was included in the Treaty of Rome, the single market is usually associated with the revitalization of the Community from the mid 1980s.Snake
A system which aimed to stabilize exchange rates within the EC in the 1970s.Social Chapter
Agreed at Maastricht, the Social Chapter establishes minimum social conditions within the EU. Until Amsterdam, the Chapter was annexed to the Treaty, as the UK Conservative government had decided not to sign up to it.Social Charter
A declaration on social conditions and standards, signed by all member states except the UK in 1989 and which ultimately fed into the Social Chapter signed at Maastricht.Social dialogue
Joint consultation procedure involving social partners at EU level, to discuss and negotiate agreements where relevant.Social dumping
The undercutting of social standards in order to improve competitiveness.Social partner(s)
Refers to labour (the unions) and capital (employers) acting together. The two sides of industry.Socialization
The process by which an individuals norms and beliefs alter, as a consequence of a process of interaction with others.Soft Law
Documents that are not formally or legally binding but which may still produce political effects.Sovereignty
A condition in which states are not subject to any higher authority; supreme, unrestricted power (of a state).Spillover
A mechanism identified by neo-functionalist theorists who claimed that sectoral integration in one area would have knock-on effects in others, and would 'spill over', thereby increasing the scope of European integration.Spinelli, Altiero
An important federalist thinker and politician (b. 1907, d. 1986), responsible for the influential Ventotene Manifesto of 1941, and for the European Parliament's Draft Treaty on European Union (1984), which helped to shape the European political agenda of the late 1980s.Stability and Growth Pact
The Stability and Growth Pact was initially agree in 1997 to ensure that the Member States continue their budgetary discipline efforts once the single currency has been introduced. It opens the way for the Council to penalise any participating Member State which fails to take appropriate measures to end an excessive deficit.State-centrism
A conceptual approach to understanding European integration which gives primacy to the role of state actors within the process.Statehood
The condition of being a state. See stateness.Stateness
The quality of being a state, that is, a legal territorial entity with a stable population and a government.Strong Currency
A situation arising out of relative levels of exchange rate whereby the value of national money is increased. This has the effect of lowering the price of imports (making imported goods cheaper), but also of increasing the price of exports, making exports less competitive in international markets.Subsidiarity
The principle that tries to ensure that decisions are taken as close as possible to the citizen.Supranational
That which is above the national level. It may refer to institutions, policies, or a particularly 'type' of co-operation/integration.Supranational governance
A theory of European integration proposed by Wayne Sandholtz and Alec Stone Sweet which draws on neo-functionalism, and provides an alternative approach to Moravcsik's liberal intergovernmentalism.Sustainability
Or 'sustainable development'. The ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations.
Third Pillar
That part of the European Union that deals with police and judicial co-operation in criminal matters. From Maastricht to Amsterdam it was labelled Justice and Home Affairs.Transfer Payments
Payments not made in return for any contribution to current output. Usually refers to agricultural subsidies.Transparency
A term used in the EU to refer to the extent of openness within the EU institutions.Transposition
The translation of European law (Directives) into domestic law.Treaty base
The provision of the Treaty which underpins a particular piece of European legislation.Treaty base game
The act of selecting a treaty base (in a 'grey area') for political ends.Treaty of Rome
Signed in 1957, the Rome Treaty formally established the European Economic Community (EEC) and EURATOM, the European Atomic Energy Community.Treaty on European Union
Treaty agreed at Maastricht in the Netherlands in December 1991, signed February 1992, and came into effect 1 November 1993.Troïka
Since the Treaty of Amsterdam, the Presidency of the Council, the High Representative for the common foreign and security policy, and the Commission have formed the 'Troïka', to represent jointly the European Union in external relations.
Unanimity
A method of voting which means that all member states in the Council must be in agreement before a proposal can be adopted (and which permits all member states to veto decisions).
Variable geometry
An image of the European Union which foresees the breakdown of a unified form of co-operation, and the introduction of a 'pick and choose' approach to further integration.
Western European Union
A collaborative defence agreement and extension of the 1948 Treaty of Brussels, signed in 1955. It was designed to allow for the rearmament of West Germany. It was revitalized in the 1980s, and subsequently served as a bridge between NATO and the EU. Its functions have lately been subsumed within the European Union.Widening
Generally refers to the enlargement of the EU, but may also be used to denote the increasing scope of Community or Union competences.
Zero-sum game
A game played (by states) in which the victory of one group implies the loss of another.Zollverein
A customs union between German states in the nineteenth century under Bismarck. The economic basis for German unification.